Moreover, better fitness levels in both men and women can partially reverse the elevated rates of all-cause mortality as well as CVD mortality associated with high body mass index ( 6, 7). Consistent with this notion, death rates among men and women have been found to be inversely related to cardiorespiratory fitness levels, even in the presence of other predictors of cardiovascular mortality such as smoking, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia ( 5). Several long-term studies have shown that increased physical activity is associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality and may modestly increase life expectancy, an effect which is strongly linked to a decline in the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases ( 4). ![]() Conversely, regular exercise and physical activity are associated with remarkable widespread health benefits and a significantly lower CVD risk. Among the many risk factors that predispose to CVD development and progression, a sedentary lifestyle, characterized by consistently low levels of physical activity, is now recognized as a leading contributor to poor cardiovascular health. In the United States, CVD accounts for ~600,000 deaths (25%) each year ( 1, 2), and after a continuous decline over the last 5 decades, its incidence is increasing again ( 3). Further studies are needed to identify the mechanisms that impart cardiovascular benefits of exercise in order to develop more effective exercise regimens, test the interaction of exercise with diet, and develop pharmacological interventions for those unwilling or unable to exercise.Ĭardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Nevertheless, a specific dose response relationship between the extent and duration of exercise and the reduction in cardiovascular disease risk and mortality remains unclear. Even though moderate levels of exercise have been found to be consistently associated with a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk, there is evidence to suggest that continuously high levels of exercise (e.g., marathon running) could have detrimental effects on cardiovascular health. Both cardiac and vascular changes have been linked to a variety of changes in tissue metabolism and signaling, although our understanding of the contribution of the underlying mechanisms remains incomplete. Acutely, exercise increases cardiac output and blood pressure, but individuals adapted to exercise show lower resting heart rate and cardiac hypertrophy. ![]() Exercise has also been found to have beneficial effects on the heart. Animal models of exercise show that repeated physical activity suppresses atherogenesis and increases the availability of vasodilatory mediators such as nitric oxide. Physically active individuals have lower blood pressure, higher insulin sensitivity, and a more favorable plasma lipoprotein profile. Frequent exercise is robustly associated with a decrease in cardiovascular mortality as well as the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. ![]() It is widely accepted that regular physical activity is beneficial for cardiovascular health.
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